Music Video A Brief History

Music Video A Brief History

A music video is a short film or video that accompanies a song (a complete piece of music).

Modern music videos were primarily made as a tool to promote and market the product, for a hopeful increase in the sale of music recordings. Music videos are often called promotion videos ('promos'), due to the fact that they are promotional devices.

The earliest music videos were filmed mid 1950's, however, before then as early as the 1920's, films by animators such as Oskar Fischinger were accompanied by musical scores labelled 'visual music'.

An early example of a music video dates back to the 1920's, St Louis's Blues - Bessie Smith 1929.

 

In 1940, Walt Disney released Fantasia, an animated film based around famous pieces of classical music.

From the 1930's to early 1960's, musicals were dominated genres in films, as many were used to promote the music. 

1950's and 1960's developments

In 1956 Tony Bennett was filmed walking along The Serpentine in Hyde Park, London as his recording of "Stranger in Paradise" played; this film was distributed yo and played by UK and US television stations, leading Bennett to later claim he made the first music video.

Around 1960 the Scopitone, a visual jukebox, was invented in France and short films were produced by many French artists, such as Serge Gainsbourg, Françoise Hardy and Jacques Dutronc to accompany their songs. Its use spread to other countries and similar machines such as the Cinebox in Italy and Color-Sonic in the USA were patented. 

Scopitone Jukebox

The defining work in the development of the modern music video was The Beatles' first major motion picture. A Hard Day's Night in 1964 which was a mock documentary established as a music video. The musical segments in this film arguably set out the basic visual vocabulary of today's music videos, influencing a vast number of contemporary musicians, and countries subsequent pop and rock music video's.

Although unashamedly based on A Hard Day's Night, the hugely popular American TV series. The Monkees was another important influence on the development of the music video genre, with each episode including a number of specially-made film segments that were created to accompany the various Monkees songs used in the series. The series ran from 1966 to 1968.

In 1966 the clip of Bob Dylan performing "Subterranean Homesick Blues" filmed by D A Pennebaker was much used. The clips ironic portrayal of a performances and the seemingly random inclusion of a celebrity (Allen Ginsberg) in a non-performing role also became mainstays of the form. The clip has been much imitated.

The main two elements of a music video are narrative and performance. Music videos also benefited film makers from art schools as they became more challenging with new ideas.

Modern Era

The key innovation in the development of the music video was, of course, video recording and editing processes, along with the development of a number of related effects such as chroma-key. the advent of high-quality colour videotape recorders and portable video cameras coincided with the DIY (do it yourself) ethos of the New Wave era and this enabled many pop acts to produce promotional videos quickly and cheaply, in comparison to the relatively high costs of using film. However, as the genre developed music video directors increasingly turned to 35mm film as preferred medium, while others mixed film and video. 

By the mid-1980's releasing a music video to accompany a new single had become standard, and acts like the Jackson's sought to gain commercial edge by creating lavish music videos with million dollar budgets; most notable with the video 'Can You Feel It'.

A good music video would increase the songs sale as the view hoped to see the video again in the following weeks. As Michael Jackson was the first one to make a short film for his music video, that has a beginning, middle and end in Billie Jean and then in a West Side Story.

Modern Era of Music Video 1970's

In the UK the importance of Top of the Pops to promote a single created an environment of innovation and competition amongst bands and record labels as the show's producers placed strict limits on the number of videos it would use, therefore a good video would increase a song's sales as viewers hoped to see the video again the following week.

Queen's "Bohemian Rhapsody" also started a whole new era for using music videos as promos.

1980's Television and Music Videos

In 1981, MTV was launched. 

The first music video to be aired was the Buggles 'Video Killed the Radio Star'.

In the early to mid 1980's artists started to use more sophisticated effects in their videos, and added a storyline or plot to the music video. Michael Jackson was the first artist to create the concept of the short film with the concept of a beginning, middle and end. It wasn't until the 1984 release of the Thriller short film that took the music video format to another level.

Top of the Pops was censorious in it's approach to video content, so another approach was for an act to produce a promo that would be banned or edited and so use the resulting controversy and publicity to promote the release. Early examples of this tactic were Duran Duran's "Girl's On film" and Frankie Goes to Hollywood with "Relax" directed by Bernard Rose & White lines by Grandmaster Flash. 

MTV

Music video would, by mid-1980's, grow to play a central role in popular music marketing.

Madonna, owed a great deal of her success to the skilful construction and seductive appeal of her video's. Some academics have compared music video to silent film, and it is suggested that stars like Madonna have constructed an image that in many ways echoes the image of the great stars of the silent era such as Greta Garbo. Although many see MTV as the start if a "golden era" of music videos and the unparalleled success of a new art form in popular culture, others see it as hastening the death of the true musical artist, because physical appeal is now critical to popularity to an unpredictable degree.

Music Video's Today

New technologies have advanced with new software and new ideas which allows music videos to never die and continue to be made and successful. However, in the modern days the typical video follows narratives to do with heartbreak and relationships, where the artist is portrayed in a sexual and provocative way. This all differs on the genre however, but there is nothing that can't be done. As we even have some videos in the form of cartoons, animations, comic and fast moving pictures. Despite all of this they still work in the same way they were intended to, which is to identify with the song and audience to keep them entertained and interactive. 

Media Language

Every medium has its own 'language' that it uses to communicate meaning.

We call these 'languages' because they use familiar codes and conventions that can be understood.
Media messages are constructed using a creative language with its own rules. Each form of communication whether newspapers, TV game shows or horror movies - has its own creative language: scary music heightens fear, close ups intimacy etc.

Understanding the grammer, syntax and metaphor system of media language, especially the language of sounds and visuals which can reach beyond our deepest emotional core, it can increase our appreciation and enjoyment of media experiences as well as helps us to be less susceptible to manipulation.

Semiotics
According to philosopher Charles Sanders Peirce (1931) "we think in only signs".
Signs take the form of words, images, sounds, odours, flavours, acts or objects, but such things have no intrinsic meaning and become signs only when we invest meaning.
"Nothing is a sign unless we interpreted as a sign".
Anything can be a sign as long as someone interprets it as 'signifying' something - referring to or standing for something other than itself. We interpret things as signs largely by relating them to familiar systems of conventions.

Linguist Ferdinand de Saussure (1974) offered a 'dyadic' of two-part model of the sign. He defined this as been a signifier.

Icon/Iconic: a mode which the signifier is seen as resembling or imitating the signifies - being similar in some of its qualities.

Index/Indexical: a mode in which the signifier is not arbitrary but is  not directly connected in someway to the signified - this link can be observed or informed.

Symbol/Symbolic: a mode in which the signifier does not resemble the signified but which is fundamentally arbitrary or purely conventional.

In semiotics, denotation, connotation are terms describing the relationship between the signifier and its signified and an analytic distinction is made between two types of signifieds a denotive and a connotative meaning includes both denotation and connotation.

Roland Barthes (1967), Saussures model of sign focus on denotation at the expense of connotation and it was left to subsequent theorists to offer an account of this important dimension of meaning.

Barthes argued that in photography connotation can be (analytically) distinguished from denotation.

John Fiske (1982) states denotation is what is photographed, and connotation is how it is photographed.

Related to connotation is what Roland Barthes (1977) refers to as myth, which were the dominant ideologies of our time. The first and second orders of signification called denotation and connotation combine to produce ideology which has been decribed as a third order of signification by Fiske and Hartley (1982).

Evaluating media language is an evaluation of all the micro elements and how they have created meaning to inform us about genre, narrative, representation/ideology, targeting of audiences (through micro elements).

Therefore requires us to use semiotic terminology to explain our encoding of elements and codes and conventions within our texts.

Genre

'Genre' is a critical tool that helps us study texts and audience responses to text by dividing them into categories based on common elements.

All genres have sub genres (genres within a genre). This means that they are divided up into more specific categories that allow audiences to identify them specifically by their familiar and what becomes recognisable characteristics (Barry Keith Grant, 1995). However, Steve Neale (1995) stresses that "genres are not 'systems' they are processes of systematisation".

Steve Neale - Dynamic Genre
Genre is a term that can be split up into different categories based on characteristics that they share, for example, settings, storylines, narratives, characters and themes. Genre can be referred to music videos, and they can be classified as being a particular genre, such as; pop, indie and rock.

Steve Neale states that 'genres are instances of repetition and difference' and 'genres are not systems, they are processes of systemisation'. He also says that, definitions of genre are historically relative and are therefore historically specific. He believed that there was a system of expectation and that by using our own knowledge and applying conventions of the genre, the audience should be able to infer the narrative and storyline of the music video. He also declares that difference is essential to economy of genre; more repetition would not attract the audience.

Generic characteristics across all texts share similar elements of typical mise-en-scene/visual style (iconography, props, set design, lighting, temporal and geographic location, costume, shot types, camera angles, special effects), typical types of narrative (plots, historical setting, set pieces), generic types i.e. typical characters, typical studio/production companies, typical personnel (directors, producers, actors, music, sound effects), typical sound design (sound design, dialogue, music, sound effects), and typical editing style.

In a typical R&B like the Where Have You Been music video, there is normally a lot upbeat dancing to match the music of the song. From this dancing it is easy to differenciate the genre from other genres, like Rock. There are various generic characteristics across all texts of the same genre that share similiar elements of typical mise-en-scene, this includes; props within the setting for instance the sand which helps to imply that it is a desert location and the water which is shown at the beginning and end of video within the jungle type location. From the set design the audience can understand that Rihanna is in different geogrphical locations, which emphasises the song lyrics "I've been everywhere". As there are different locations Rihanna has costumes to match the location, such as wearing desert clothes. Not only does Rihanna wear costumes to match the location her backing dancers who feature in the video also wear similar outfits. Everything within the mise-en-scene from props, set design, costumes, lighting, and location etc. all create verisimilitude making the video look as realistic as it possibly could be camera techniques add to this such as, shot types, angles and special effects.

The performance within the narrative is conventional of a R&B video, through the plots and set pieces. The set design helps to create the plot and form structure to the narrative, without this the video would not make sense and would not be appealing to the audience as it would not have an effect upon them. This video is purely performance within the narrative based. Having the combination of performance and narrative is typical of a music video as it is hard to have just either a pure performance or narrative, by using both performance and narrative the video can be made more interesting and enjoyable to watch for example, in Kelly Clarkson 'Since You've Been Gone'.

There are typical characters like the artist and backing dancers. As well as a typical studio and/or a production company that have designed the set especially to create the music video. For a music video on this scale there would have been typical members of personnel like directors, producers and actors. The sound of the music and editing styles for example, cutting between different scenes and having various camera shots, are all conventional and typical for a music video within this genre.

Jason Mittell (2001) argues that genres are cultural categories that surpass the boundaries of media texts and operate within industry, audience, and cultural practices as well. Industries use genre to sell products to audiences media producers use familiar codes and conventions that very often make cultural references to their audience knowledge of society, other texts. Genre also allows audiences to make choices about what products they want to consume through acceptance in order to fulfill a particular pleasure.

Many of  Rihanna's audience are aged 17 to 19+, and are mainly white or black African. The music industry use Rihanna's popularity from these age and ethnic minority categories to sell her products. Many of her fans see her as a role model outside of music rather than a music icon, but the music industry uses this to their advantage to sell products. Industries use genre to sell products to audiences, media use familiar codes and conventions that very often make cultural references that the audience will be able to interpret and make acknowledgement of. By Rihanna presenting herself in this video through the mise-en-scene and camera shots, it allows the audience to make a decision about what products they want to consume. 

Pleasure of genre for audiences
Theorist Rick Altman (1999) argues that genre offers audiences 'a set of pleasures'.

• Emotional Pleasures: The emotional pleasures offered to audiences of genre films are particularly significant when they generate a strong audience response.
• Visceral Pleasure: Visceral pleasures ('visceral' refers to internal organs) are 'gut' responses and are defined by how the films stylistic construction effects a physical effect upon its audience. This can be a feeling of revulsion, kinetic speed, or a 'roller coaster ride'.
• Intellectual Puzzles: Certain film genres such as the thriller offer the pleasure in trying to unravel a mystery or a puzzle. Pleasure is derived from deciphering the plot and forecasting the end or the being surprised by the unexpected.

Different people who watch this music video may react differently and get a different pleasure from it as Rick Altman suggests. The audience may get an emotional pleasure from this, probably a female audience rather than a male audience. But they may be able to relate to the video is some form as trying to find love or being in a relationship this therefore creates a strong response.

The audience may get a visceral pleasure or have a physical effect from the video. This can be a feeling of revulsion, the audience may find the way Rihanna presents herself in the video is disgusting especially those members of the audience who have cultural values, and think Rihanna is inappropriately dressed or shouldn't be surrounded by a mass number of male dancers, dancing in the way she is. However, the audience may feel like the speed of the music and the video have a positive affect upon them making them feel upbeat and happy. Or they may find it thrilling and think its exciting like a 'roller coaster ride'.

As this video starts of mysterious, the audience may try and work out what is going to happen in the narrative. By doing this they are creating a pleasure of an intellectual puzzle. Pleasure is derived from deciphering the plot and trying to guess how the video will end, the audience will try and guess the plot through listening to the song lyrics and trying to understand how it might go. When Rihanna rises out of the water in the start of the video on her own, she looks mysterious, this will quiz the audience of what the video is trying to show. As the video develops Rihanna is in different locations the audience may relate it to the song suggesting the plot is based on the song lyrics. From this they will try and guess how it is going to end or if there is going to be a surprise ending. In this video the plot ends with Rihanna returning to the water on her own like the video initially started, and it concludes where she and the males surrounding her go back into the water. Many of the audience may have thought that she would have found something, but in this case she does not which adds a surprise/an unexpected twist in the narrative/plot, which is uncommon in most music video's of the same genre.

Strengths of Genre Theory
The main strength of genre theory is that everybody uses it and understands it, media experts use it to study media texts, the media industry use it to develop and market texts and audiences use it to decide what texts to consume.
The potential for the same concept to be understood by producers, audiences and scholars makes genre a useful critical tool. It's accessibility as a concept also means that it can be applied across a wide range of texts.

The medium of short film does not have a specific genre. However the things that separate short films from feature films are that they often have single strand narratives and/or focus on the characters. They can be very often anti-narrative/surrealist. Short films can be ambiguous, open meaning (Eco 1981) and often experimental.

Genre Development and Transformation
Over the years genres develop and change as the wider society that produce them also changes, a process that is known as generic transformation.

Christian Metz in his book Language and Cinema (1974) argued that genres go through a typical cycle of changes during their lifetime.

• Experimental Stage
• Classic Stage
• Parody Stage
• Deconstruction Stage

Music video is a medium intended to appeal directly to youth subcultures by reinforcing generic elements of musical genres.

• They are called pop-promos as they are used to promote a band or artist.
• Music videos are postmodern texts whose main purpose is to promote a star persona (Dyer, 1975).
• They don't have to be literal representations of the song or lyrics. 

In terms of genre, there are narrative and performances and some that combine both.
Both performance and narrative based videos are very often purely intertextual.

Blink 182 - All The Small Things

Weezer - Buddy Holly

They often pastiche/parody films or other commentary on social events. Green Day's Basket Case (1996) pastiches One Flew Over The Cuckoo's Nest (1975).

Others include themes which may fit around the lyrics of the song or society (particularly if the band are well known activists known for supporting a cause). This is a medium known for being experimental and controversial. The generic conventions stay the same but the style change between music genres.

Genre Themes

Genres are not fixed: they constantly change and evolve over time.

David Buckingham (1993) argues that 'genre is not simply given by the culture rather, it is in a constant process of negotiation and change.

As postmodern theorist Jacques Derrida reminds us, "the law of genre is precisely a principle of contamination, a law of impurity".
Arctic Monkey's music video 'Scummy Man'. Portishead's 'To kill a dead man' is essentially a short film noir (1940s detective movie).

Nicholas Abercrombie (1996) suggests that "the boundaries between genres are shifting and becoming more permeable". Abercrombie is concerned with modern television, which he suggests seems to be engaged in 'a steady dismantling of genre'.

Hypodermic Syringe Theory

Stuart Hall

Stuart Hall - Audience

Stuart Hall (1973) suggested texts were encoded by the producers of texts to contain certain meanings related to social and cultural background of the creator of the text. However, once the viewer of the text 'decoded' that text then the meanings intended by the producer may change.

He went on to suggest three main perspectives involved in the way in which an audience responds to a particular text. This involves how the audience is positioned by the text and its subsequent response.

Preferred or Dominant Readings - this is where the audience interprets the text as closely to the way in which the producer of the text intended. If the social and cultural experience of the reader of the text is close to that of the producer then there is little for the audience to challenge.

In the video for Rihanna Where Have You Been there is a clear message that the audience can interpret which is; she is looking for a man in various places as you can see in the video. At one point she is in a desert, then a jungle etc. this reinforces that she is looking for someone. Many of the audience will be able to relate to this in everyday life for example relationships which makes it relevant to society. The mass audience of the music video will be Rihanna's fans which already idolise her and consider her a role model, meaning that they will not challenge or disagree with the video in any way.

Negotiated Readings - This is where the audience goes through some sort of negotiation with themselves to allow them to accept the way in which the text is presented. You may agree with some elements of the text and disagree with others. You may need to adjust your viewpoint to get the most out of the product you are viewing.

For this video the audience may agree with the dominant reading slightly. However they may disagree with some aspects and therefore make a negotiated reading. In this video the audience may not fully agree with some elements, like Rihanna looking in deserts and jungles because in everyday society that would not happen making it unrealistic and people would not be able to relate to this. Although people may watch the music video to escape everyday life they may feel that the way Rihanna presents herself is sexualised and that normal everyday people would not be able to present themselves in that way. This means that they disagree with the video but they may consider that it is just a music video and have a negotiated reading, and Rihanna is just a product of the music industry trying to sell her own products. 

Oppositional or Resistant Readings - This is where the user of the text finds themselves in conflict with the text itself due to their beliefs or experiences. E.g.: a narrative is a soap opera that views a woman who is having an affair sympathetically will encourage a resistant reading in a person whose culture is against adultery.

The viewers may have an oppositional reading of the video if they cannot relate to it at all, and they don't think that this is a real representation of people of a similar age in society. They may not understand the dominant reading and the message that the producer intended making them confused. Showing Rihanna in a desert and a jungle location may make the video unrealistic to the oppositional viewers, as having a desert and jungle location cannot relate to viewers who live somewhere where there is not a desert or jungle nearby. However, the viewer may just dislike the genre that Rihanna produces and have no interest in trying to understand the music video. People may assume that the video is aimed at one culture and that is does not take into account other cultural beliefs such as, Muslims. Viewers who have cultural values may disagree with the way she is dressed and how she is dancing on her own and with other dancers surrounding her, as well as presenting herself in general.

Audience Theory - Blumler and Katz